Philosopher's Stone in the Middle Ages. Philosopher's Stone, what is it? Does the Philosopher's Stone Really Exist?

From the Middle Ages until the end of the 17th century, the so-called philosopher's stone was the cherished goal of alchemists - scientists who created the knowledge base for modern chemistry.

What is a "philosopher's stone"?

According to legend, the philosopher's stone was a substance capable of turning base metals such as copper, zinc, tin and iron into precious metals such as gold and silver. In addition, with the help of the philosopher's stone, it was possible to achieve an elixir of eternal youth that could cure any disease, restore lost youth, and even grant immortality to its lucky owner.

Alchemists only in the very formation of their "science" considered the philosopher's stone to be a stone, further searches characterized it both as a powder and as an elixir. In the period of the High Renaissance, it was customary to call the philosopher's stone "primary matter" (materia prima). It was during this period that alchemy became strongly mixed with philosophy.

In their incessant search for this almighty "stone", alchemists studied all kinds of natural and chemical elements, conducted experiments and synthesized new substances and alloys, creating a solid foundation for the emergence of chemistry, pharmacology and metallurgy.

What was the result of the search?

Many of the European geniuses sought to find this unique element, among them Roger Boyle - the progenitor of chemistry, Johann Conrad Dippel, who became the prototype of Victor Frankenstein in Mary Shelley's novel, and even Isaac Newton himself, whose secret passion for alchemy is widely known today.

However, long before Newton, the French clerk, notary, philanthropist and alchemist Nicolas Flamel allegedly revealed the secret of the philosopher's stone. An ancient Jewish book with Kabbalistic mysteries got into his bookstore, for the translation of which Flamel went to Spain, after which rumors spread that the alchemist had created a magical element. The incredibly long lives of Flamel and his wife, and their sudden wealth, only contributed to the spread of these rumors.

Nicolas Flamel is well known to fans of the Harry Potter novels. In the first book of the series, JK Rowling mentions Flamel and his successful discovery - the book was published under the title "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone".

In different time periods, some were seriously engaged in the study of alchemy, while others called it pseudoscience. But one French bookseller succeeded in proving, as some mystics believe, the truth of alchemy. He allegedly turned mercury into silver and gold, and spent the resulting wealth on charity.

Alchemy is a medieval discipline with roots that go back to the worlds of philosophy, physics and religion. The physical aspect of alchemy focuses on the transformation of elements, namely the transformation of one material into another, usually gold. In order to accomplish this, the alchemist needs to learn a lot of new things, and most importantly, to get the philosopher's stone. According to the descriptions in the Alexandrian and Arabic texts, it gives not only the ability to create precious metal, but also to acquire exceptional strength, health and immortality.

One day, a stranger came to his shop and brought an old book on alchemy. Flamel wrote that “it was made of magnificent pigskin; its lid was brass, and strange symbols were inscribed inside. The author of the manuscript was indicated "Abraham the Jew - prince, priest, philosopher, Levite, astrologer and philosopher."

For more than twenty years, Flamel tried to uncover the code with which the book was written. Desperate, he copied several sheets and went to Spain, where he infiltrated the Jewish community. He found an elderly scholar who recognized the text as ancient Chaldean and asked to see the entire book. The scientist died on the way to France, but managed to translate the pages that Flamel had.

But, instead of accumulating wealth, Flamel began to donate funds to charity. He financed the construction of several schools, seven churches, fourteen hospitals. Flamel continued his study of alchemy and wrote several books on the subject. However, Nicolas Flamel believed that one should not discover the secret of the philosopher's stone and give people free access to gold. The philanthropist and scholar died peacefully at the age of 80 in 1418 and was buried in Saint-Jacques-de-la-Boucherie.

There is also a version that the philosopher's stone endowed Nicolas Flamel not only with wealth, but also with immortality. It is said that he visited India, and that he was repeatedly seen in Paris in the 17th, 18th, 19th centuries. And about the untold wealth of this famous Frenchman, they talked almost more than about his mystical appearance at the Paris Opera together with his wife and son 300 years after his death in 1417. But there is no documentary evidence of this.

Anyone can also learn more about.

The Philosopher's Stone and the Principles of Alchemy
What was the theoretical basis of alchemical experiments? The whole alchemical system was based on two theories: the theory of the structure of metals and the theory of the generation of metals. Metals, according to alchemists, consisted of various substances, and each of them necessarily contained sulfur and mercury. Combining in various proportions, these substances formed gold, silver, copper, etc. It was assumed that in gold the proportion of mercury is large, and the proportion of sulfur is small; in copper, for example, both of these ingredients were contained in approximately equal amounts. The tin was an imperfect mixture of a small amount of "contaminated" mercury and a significant amount of sulfur, and so on.
All these conclusions were stated in the VIII century by the Arab alchemist Geber. He also stated that, according to the ancient adepts, by certain operations it is possible to change the composition of metals and thereby transform one metal into another. This theory of the generation of metals was formulated quite clearly in medieval alchemical treatises. The process taking place in the alchemical vessel was likened to the process of generating animals and plants. So, in order to produce this or that metal, it was necessary to acquire its seed.

There was no such thing as an inorganic substance for the adept of alchemy: from his point of view, every substance was alive. The life of substances was under the secret influence of the stars - silent masters, slowly leading metals to perfection. The imperfect substance is gradually transformed and finally becomes gold. Individual Hermeticists who have succeeded in comprehending the symbol of the snake biting its own tail have argued that nature works without interruption and that the ideal substance undergoes new transformations, returning to the state of base metal. The cycle of change repeats forever.

However, all these were only hypotheses, and in order to confirm them, it was necessary to carry out a successful transmutation. Beginning in the 12th century, alchemists began to argue that some kind of reactive agent was needed for transmutation. This agent has been called variously: the philosopher's stone, the philosopher's powder, the great elixir, the quintessence, and so on. In contact with liquid metals, the philosopher's stone was supposed to turn them into gold. Descriptions of this miraculous substance are different for different authors. Paracelsus characterizes it as hard and dark red; Berigarde of Pisa says that it is dyed poppy; Raymond Lull likens its color to the color of a carbuncle; Helvetius claims that he held it in his hands and that it was bright yellow. All these contradictions are reconciled by the Arab alchemist Khalid (or rather, the author who wrote under such a pseudonym): "This stone combines all colors. It is white, red, yellow, sky blue and green." Thus an agreement was reached between all the philosophers.

Hypotheses and misconceptions that a modern person should know Tribis Elena Evgenievna

Quest for the Philosopher's Stone

Quest for the Philosopher's Stone

When people did not yet possess scientific knowledge, they had to proceed by trial and error. This is how pseudosciences arose, which set as their goal something unattainable - something that could not happen precisely because it was impossible according to the laws of nature.

Alchemy, which became widespread in the Middle Ages, can also be attributed to such pseudosciences. The goal of the alchemists was to obtain the so-called. philosopher's stone - a substance that can turn base metals into precious ones. The English philosopher Roger Bacon (1214-1292) in his work Speculative Alchemy wrote about this science as follows: “Alchemy is the science of how to prepare a certain compound, or elixir, which, if added to base metals, will turn them into perfect metals.

According to scientists, alchemy originated about 2000 thousand years ago. It is this time that an object discovered in 1936 among the ruins of an ancient Parthian settlement near Baghdad dates back. This valuable archaeological find was a clay vase about 15 cm high, in which there was a cylinder made of sheet copper with a rusted iron rod inside. All parts were filled with resin, which fixed them in the right position. A strange object haunted scientists for a long time, until, finally, they realized that they had a worthy electric battery in front of them.

The guess was confirmed by experiments. The researchers made exactly the same vase, rod and cylinder, filled the vessel with wine vinegar and connected a measuring device to it. As it turned out, the battery gave a voltage of 0.5 V.

This is what the very first electric battery in the history of the Earth looks like

But it remained a mystery why the Parthians needed electric current. In the end, scientists found out that using this first battery in the world, craftsmen covered silver with gold using electroplating. This assumption was confirmed empirically: scientists took a silver figurine, immersed it in a salt solution of gold, and then connected a power source consisting of 10 similar batteries to the solution. A few hours later, the figurine was evenly covered with a thin layer of gold.

This method of spraying gold may have been the beginning of alchemy. The word "alchemy" itself is derived from the Arabic "al-kimia", which means "the art of the country of Khem" (as Egypt was called in ancient times). Already from the beginning of the II century. n. e. Arab alchemists began to actively explore many chemicals, thus trying to get the philosopher's stone. The experiments of the Eastern alchemists contributed to the development of science, but their contemporaries saw in these researches only the intervention of magical forces. The first European alchemists acquired the fame of sorcerers, and this belief was maintained for centuries. For example, the great alchemist and philosopher Albert Magnus (1206-1280) was for centuries considered a powerful magician who could communicate with higher powers and bend earthly objects to his will.

However, often the goal of alchemists was not to know the properties of substances, but to search for a secret chemical formula that could turn simple metals into gold and silver. Alchemists also sought to create a special elixir of life that would give a person immortality. Alchemists devoted many years to the search for the philosopher's stone, some scientists practically did not leave the laboratories throughout their lives.

Some historians argue that true alchemists did not crave wealth and prosperity at all, but knowledge that would help them achieve the loftiness of the mind. It is this perfection of the spirit that should be understood by the symbol that denotes gold - the most perfect of all metals.

Laboratory of the scientist-alchemist; often its indispensable attribute was a stuffed crocodile, which medieval sorcerers considered a dragon

Among the alchemists were a variety of people: some were scientists, thirsty for new knowledge obtained through laboratory research; others were just swindlers who robbed the wealthy with magic tricks and false promises; still others, combining both of these qualities, surrounded themselves with witchcraft glory and set out their experiences on paper in the form of special magical symbols.

The last group of alchemists includes the prominent scientist of that time, Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim, or Paracelsus. He radically transformed medicine and promoted progress in the field of chemistry, but he talked so much about his "magic power" that he even caused laughter from his contemporaries. No wonder the word "bombast", formed from his name, began to be called a windbag - a person who boasts of what he does not have.

Another very famous alchemist is considered to be Count Saint-Germain, who was born into the family of a tax inspector in 1710. He was an unusual person who tried by any means to confirm his fame as a unique person. In the 40s. 18th century Count Saint-Germain appeared at court in magnificent attire, studded with jewels, which he allegedly received from the Persian Shah. The count had a very pleasant appearance, was courteous with gentlemen and gallant with ladies, who loved him not only for his mysterious beauty, but also for the fact that he supplied them with a miraculous anti-wrinkle cream, made by him with his own hand.

The count was considered the most unusual person at court. It was rumored that he was a master of the skill of an alchemist, and therefore he could increase the size of precious stones, make ointments and ointments that contribute to the preservation of beauty, and turn simple metals into silver. The atmosphere of mystery that surrounded the count was also confirmed by his behavior at dinner parties.

To reinforce the rumors that he received the "elixir of eternal life", Saint-Germain never ate anything in the presence of other people, and during endless feasts he did not stop for a minute. Casanova, who was personally acquainted with the count, said that he had never met another such talker in his life.

Saint-Germain himself never denied any rumors about himself, and vaguely answered questions: "Everything is possible in the sublunar world." Even in his advanced years, the count remained young in body. A portrait of the alchemist dating back to 1783 has been preserved, in which the count is depicted as a flowering man at sunset. But by that time, Saint-Germain was already 73 years old. Modern researchers argue that the count managed to preserve his youth not because he was engaged in alchemy, but because he was a strict vegetarian and always had an aversion to drunkenness and gluttony, which his contemporaries indulged in.

Despite the fact that the death of Saint-Germain was dated 1784, his fame as a man not subject to decay has not faded. So, Frans Mesmer (“magnetic genius”) swore that he saw the count, alive and unharmed, a year after his official death, and he looked no older than 40 years. At this time, men began to appear here and there, who pretended to be a famous alchemist. In 1860, Emperor Napoleon II was forced to appoint a special commission that would finally find out which of the impostors was the immortal count.

The legendary Saint-Germain, who in his advanced years retained the appearance of a young, flowering man

The real Saint Germain never appeared before the eyes of the ruler.

Alchemy spread very widely. This "magic" art covered its secrets with a veil of symbols, and therefore everyone who was passionate about alchemy was considered a sorcerer. This could not but cause concern in official religious circles. In 1316, Pope John XXII issued a special decree in which he ordered to fight against alchemy.

In particular, it said: “From now on, alchemy is prohibited, and those who disobey will be punished by paying in favor of the poor as much as counterfeit gold is produced. If this is not enough, the judge has the right to add, declaring them all criminals. As can be seen from this decree, the pope did not doubt that it was possible to obtain precious metals by laboratory means, and only worried about the moral principles of his flock.

The alchemists never managed to achieve the transformation of one metal into another, and the reason for the failure is now known to any schoolchild. These experiments simply could not be crowned with success, because during chemical reactions it is impossible to split the nucleus of an atom of an element (this is achievable only with experiments based on the laws of nuclear physics, therefore, no chemical experiments can turn one metal into another).

Currently, modern physicists have learned how to get gold from lead by splitting atomic nuclei. But such experiments are so expensive that the cost of 1 g of gold obtained is estimated at millions of dollars, and therefore even today alchemists have not stopped searching for the philosopher's stone, even reaching the point of absurdity.

For example, some modern alchemists claim that the magical formula can be obtained through Kundalini Yoga. This teaching, as its followers believe, allows you to concentrate the sexual energy of a person into one powerful stream that can change the essence of matter. Being attached to a metal, such an energy clot is able to make it change its properties.

In an effort to acquire the philosopher's stone, alchemists, however, made a great contribution to the development of science. Numerous experiments helped to obtain valuable information, which later began to be used for practical purposes. Thus, such branches of industry as glassmaking, metallurgy, the production of paints, ceramics, and medicines arose.

The German scientist Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604–1670) went down in history as the discoverer of hydrochloric acid. He was the first to establish the production of nitric acid and discovered the crystal hydrate of sodium sulfate (Glauber's salt). The scientist set up numerous experiments in the hope of discovering the philosopher's stone and even believed that the Glauber salt he had discovered brought him closer to obtaining the magic formula. Sodium sulfate crystal hydrate did not help to extract gold, but to this day it perfectly treats many intestinal diseases.

The German Franciscan friar Wertold Schwartz (circa 1330) was also fond of alchemy. He was accused of witchcraft and imprisoned. But even here Schwartz continued his alchemical experiments and accidentally discovered gunpowder.

Alchemy has also benefited mankind because some of the methods of laboratory technology used by researchers have been used in other branches of knowledge. So, for example, culinary specialists were indebted to the alchemists. Searching for the philosopher's stone, the alchemists came up with a double cauldron ("Virgin Mary's bath"), with which you can get the slowest heating of the substance. To cooks who have successfully used such a boiler in the kitchen, this device is known as a "steam bath". Some laboratory techniques developed by alchemists (for example, distillation, sublimation, etc.). and are now used in various chemical and physical experiments.

The Theft of the Stone of Destiny, December 25, 1950 by Ian Hamilton Since the time of Alexander III, the Skoon Stone, popularly known as the Stone of Destiny, has played a symbolic role in gaining royal power. In 1296 he was taken from Scone Abbey in Perthshire by soldiers

Doors made of stone and a key to them. “Great Gate” “God will not destroy the heart of the contrite and humble. Renew Zion, O God, according to Thy mercy, and let the walls of Jerusalem be raised.” (Ps. 50, 17) One of the most ancient stops on our way, in the heart of Jerusalem. Everyone who

I. SEARCHING FOR REGULARITIES A BEGINNER IN THE AROUND WORLD We do not honor the mind of a child. To anyone who expresses some kind of nonsense thought, we often say with irritation: - You have a childish logic! Or: - You argue like a small child. Or even more offensive :- Stupid as

Search While the bombs were still raining on Pearl Harbor, a short message was broadcast on the radio: "Air raid on Pearl Harbor is not a practice." The Enterprise received this warning while 200 miles west of the port. Maybe the gunners on Oahu mistook

Flat stone people Dark moonless night. The sentry of the "nerds" sat down on a round flat stone. Suddenly he noticed a barely perceptible movement of blurry silhouettes near low trees with twisted trunks. Undoubtedly, these are local natives and they have spears in their hands. Hourly

Searches In the spring of 1848, under pressure from public opinion, the Admiralty sent five ships to search for the missing expedition. To no avail. For ten years, one expedition after another went into the white silence of the Arctic with the hope of saving people or at least finding

The magic of the oathstone "Black Magic" has apparently never reached such a high level of complexity as in the secret Kenyan community "Mau Mau". This is truly an extraordinary organization. Their members belong to the largest tribe in Kenya, the Kikuyu tribe.

Ilya Gerchikov This city, familiar to the stone... Letters from afar I could start my notes with a recollection of how my wife and I arrived almost fifty years ago in Chelyabinsk. From the station to the social city of ChMZ, where my relatives lived, they traveled by the then fashionable transport - “columbine”,

PREFACE TO AFTERWORD (Notes from a Philosophical Disposition) Magnus ab integro saeculorum nascitur ordo. (Virg.) (The great order of times is born anew) 1. With respect and fear I accepted Igor Sergeevich's offer to write a few words on the margins of his remarkable work. Let

Seeking support... Sobbing in the kitchen under parting words Yeltsin, having received from the fugitive husband as a gift for the millennium another pretty pendant and seeing him off to have fun with a healthy beauty, I again plunged into the imitation of my former life. But at the same time I started looking

Ominous stone trail Gems are not only especially attractive to thieves, they can also protect them and punish them. Children's memory is tenacious for impressions. Once heard the story is remembered in great detail years later. And the story was impressive.

The Memory of Bronze and Stone The sun, leaving behind the dark silhouettes of the diverse buildings of Kamakura, behind the scaly roofs of squat Japanese houses, surrounds the multi-tiered pagoda with a pink halo. Dazzling glare touches the sculptures of seated Buddhas, blurred in solidified gold.

The language of secret symbols has always hidden alchemy from the curiosity of the uninitiated. We still do not understand its true essence: for some it is the manufacture of gold, for others - finding the elixir of immortality, for others - the transformation of man.

royal art

Alchemy is the mother of chemistry. It was in alchemical laboratories that sulfuric, nitric and hydrochloric acids, saltpeter and gunpowder, “aqua regia” and many medicinal substances were first obtained.
Medieval alchemists set themselves quite specific tasks. One of the founders of European alchemy, Roger Bacon (XIII century), writes the following:

"Alchemy is the science of how to prepare a certain compound, or elixir, which, if added to base metals, will turn them into perfect metals."

Turning simple metals into noble ones, the alchemist defies nature itself.

Despite the fact that in Medieval Europe alchemy was actually outlawed, many ecclesiastical and secular rulers patronized it, counting on the benefits that the "despicable metal" promised. And not only patronized, but also engaged themselves. Alchemy has become a truly "Royal Art".

Elector Augustus the Strong of Saxony (1670-1733), whose claim to the Polish crown required significant financial expenses, turned Dresden into a real capital of alchemy. To replenish the treasury with gold, he attracted the talented alchemist Friedrich Böttger. How successful Böttger was in the gold field, history is silent.

There were many alchemists in Europe, but few became adepts - those who discovered the secret of the philosopher's stone.

In the language of symbols

The origins of alchemy go back to Hermeticism - a doctrine that absorbed the traditions of ancient Greek natural philosophy, Chaldean astrology and Persian magic. Hence the mysterious and ambiguous language of alchemical treatises. Metals for the alchemist are not just substances, but the personification of the cosmic order. So, in alchemical manuscripts, gold turns into the Sun, silver into the Moon, mercury into Mercury, lead into Saturn, tin into Jupiter, iron into Mars, copper into Venus.

The choice of seven celestial bodies is also not accidental. Seven is a sign of completeness and perfection, the highest degree of striving for knowledge and wisdom, evidence of magical power and the keeper of secrets.
The recipe recorded in hermetic treatises also looks mysterious. The English alchemist George Ripley (15th century), in order to prepare the elixir of the sages, suggests heating philosophical mercury until it turns first into a green and then into a red lion. He advises to collect the liquids that have arisen at the same time, as a result of which “tasteless phlegm, alcohol and red drops” will appear.

“The Cimmerian shadows will cover the retort with their dull veil. It will light up and, soon taking on a magnificent lemon color, will again reproduce a green lion. Have him eat his tail and distill the product again. Finally, my son, carefully rectify, and you will see the appearance of combustible water and human blood.

How to turn a symbolic alchemical word into a living practical reality?

Some have tried, taking it literally. For example, Joan of Arc's associate, the illustrious Marshal Gilles de Ré, went as far as killing babies for the sake of young blood, which was believed to be necessary for the success of the Great Work.
To descendants who want to lift the veil of secrets of alchemical texts, the philosopher Artephius writes: “Unfortunate fool! How can you be so naive and believe that we will teach you so openly and clearly the greatest and most important of our secrets? Hermetic symbolism was supposed to forever hide the secrets of the adepts from the uninitiated.

Scientists of the 19th century managed to unravel the allegory of the alchemists. What is the "lion that devours the sun"? This is the process of dissolving gold with mercury. Ripley's recipe is also deciphered, which describes the procedure for obtaining acetone. However, the chemist Nicola Lemery notes that he did this experiment many times, but never received red drops - a substance that, according to adepts, had the property of a philosopher's stone. The chemical extract was extracted, but the alchemical miracle did not happen.

Alchemical symbolism is more than a reflection of a chemical process. For example, one of the main alchemical symbols - a dragon swallowing its own tail - is the personification of multiple births and deaths. The symbolic language of sacred texts is addressed not only to technology, but also to all structures of being, the balance between which can lead to success in alchemical transformations.

Philosopher's Stone

The central element of the alchemical teachings is the philosopher's stone or elixir, which can turn base metals into noble ones. It was presented not only in the form of a stone, it could be a powder or liquid. Some adepts left us a recipe for preparing their "Grand Master".
For example, Albert the Great suggests using mercury, arsenic, silver scale and ammonia as components of the philosopher's stone. All this, having passed through the stages of purification, mixing, heating, distillation, should turn into "a white substance, solid and clear, close in shape to a crystal."

The property of the philosopher's stone was not only the transmutation of metals. The alchemists of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance recognized the ability of the elixir to grow precious stones, increase the fruitfulness of plants, heal all diseases, prolong life, and even grant eternal youth.

The 14th-century French alchemist Nicholas Flamel is one of those masters who managed to get the philosopher's stone. Having become acquainted with the treatise of Abraham the Jew, he spent his whole life deciphering the "key to the Work" left there. And, in the end, he found him, gaining, according to legend, immortality.

The spread of the legend was facilitated by repeated eyewitness accounts who allegedly met Flamel many years after his official death. The opening of the alchemist's grave only strengthened the myth - Flamel was not in it.
However, the philosopher's stone should not be considered solely as a material substance. For many adepts, the search for the "Grand Master" was akin to finding the truth that could solve the highest task of Hermeticism - the deliverance of mankind from original sin.

Is alchemy a science?

The church considered alchemy a source of superstition and obscurantism. For the poet Dante Alighieri, alchemy is "a completely fraudulent science and good for nothing else." Even Avicena looked negatively at the Hermetic mysteries, arguing that "alchemists can only make the most excellent imitations by painting red metal white - then it becomes like silver, or by coloring it yellow - then it becomes like gold."

Back in the 4th century BC. e. Aristotle wrote that copper, when combined with zinc or tin, formed golden-yellow alloys. Often an alchemical experiment was considered successful when the base metal merely took on the hue of a noble one.
However, there is indirect evidence that in their laboratories the alchemists managed to produce gold, which in its qualities is in no way inferior to natural metal.

In one of the museums in Vienna, a gold medal is exhibited, the weight of which corresponds to 16.5 ducats. On one side of the medal is engraved the inscription "Golden descendant of the lead parent", on the other - "The chemical transformation of Saturn into the Sun (lead into gold) was carried out in Innsbruck on December 31, 1716 under the auspices of His Excellency Count Palatine Karl Philip".
Of course, the testimony of a noble person can in no way guarantee that real gold was not used in the smelting of the medal. However, there are other arguments as well.

In the 14th century, King Edward II of England ordered the Spanish alchemist Raymond Lull to smelt 60,000 pounds of gold, providing him with mercury, tin and lead. It is not known whether Lull was able to cope with the task, however, historical documents indicate that when concluding major trade transactions, the British began to use gold coins in quantities that significantly exceeded the country's gold reserves.

No one knows where 8.5 tons of gold bars came from in the inheritance of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Rudolf II (1552-1612). Later it was found that the gold of Rudolf II contained practically no impurities, in contrast to the natural ingots used for minting coins.
Having brought its secrets from the depths of centuries, alchemical art still zealously guards them, probably forever depriving descendants of the opportunity to penetrate the secrets of the Great Work.